Teaching in Time VoiceThread

Please view my voicethread about the time limitations in the classroom. Please comment with your opinions and suggestions.

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Constructivism and Constructionism

Constructivism verses Constructionism

Constructivism is a theory that states learners construct his or her own thinking through assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation is when new knowledge builds onto prior knowledge that already exists. Accommodation is when previous knowledge does not exist, so the learner’s schema needs to be altered to accommodate the new information.

Constructionism is a theory that states that in order for students to effectively retain information and form connections to the content, they need to build artifacts or products to share with others. Like the constructivist theory, the constructionism theory states that students construct their own knowledge through experiences. Both theories state that “knowledge is unique to the individual that constructs it” (Lever-Duffy, MdDonald, 2008).

Generating and Testing Hypothesis

This week we learned about generating and testing hypothesis. When students form a hypothesis about a topic, they are developing higher level thinking skills while tapping in to the prior knowledge. This allows students to construct his or her own thinking by assimilating the new information with the existing schema. Technology such as interactive spreadsheets allow students to generate a hypotheses and receive immediate feedback of their tests. Students can focus on higher level thinking skills such as problem solving and analysis instead of calculations.  

To determine whether a hypotheses is correct, students need to test out their ideas. One way they can analyze and look for patterns of their results is through data collection tools. Data collection tools allow students to “gather and graph data quickly so that there is more time for analysis and synthesis” (Pitler, Hubbell, Kuhn, Malenoski, 2007). They can sort their data based on a characteristic such as size or speed, which will allow students to visualize their conclusions to synthesize their results. Students can also use this tool to compare data with those in the same classroom or through online collaboration to determine whether results vary.

Web resources allows students to formulate and test a hypothesis in a situation that would not be possible in the regular education setting. Students can participate in a virtual game that allows students to build their own farming community and use their ideas to gain revenue. Students in third grade virtually dissect owl pellets to determine what rodent the bones originated from. With the resources available on the Internet, students can develop and test a hypotheses in all subject areas through their computer.

Project-Based Learning Tools

Some ways that students can generate and test their hypothesis is through project-based learning tools. These tools tie directly into the constructivist and constructionist learning theories. These learning tools are student-centered where the teacher’s role is a facilitator. The teacher’s main purpose in a student-centered lessons is to provide resources and feedback when necessary. Students tackle authentic real-world problems. They work collaboratively in groups to generate and test hypotheses. They develop strategies to solve problems using their prior knowledge and schema. Afterwards students reflect on their solutions and are given feedback from their teacher and peers. If an artifact is created, it can be modified based on the evaluation. These tools are truly student centered as students determine the steps taken, resources used and at times assessment rubrics used for evaluation. 

Conclusion

The constructivist and constructivism theorists state that learners construct their own knowledge through experiences and prior knowledge. Students can develop higher order thinking skills through problem solving by developing and testing hypotheses and project-based learning tools. Technology makes the process more focused since students do not need to take the time to compute equation, they can focus on the analysis and interpretation of their data. Students have the ability to compare and contrast the results of their hypothesis with other groups in the classroom or around the globe. This allows for collaboration of ideas as well as provides students the power to analyze their own theories to make alterations and changes. These higher level thinking skills stem beyond basic computation and memorization as students develop schema they will apply to various situations throughout their lives.

References:

Han, S., and Bhattacharya, K. (2001). Constructionism, Learning by Design, and Project Based Learning. In M. Orey (Ed.), Emerging perspectives on learning, teaching, and technology. Retrieved <insert date>, from http://projects.coe.uga.edu/epltt/

Lever-Duffy, J., & McDonald, J. (2008). Theoretical foundations. Boston, MA: Pearson Education, Inc.

Pitler, H., Hubbell, E., Kuhn, M., & Malenoski, K. (2007). Using technology with classroom instruction that works. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

Cognitivism in Practice

The cognitive learning theory emphasizes the “mental operation that takes place when information enters through the senses, undergoes mental manipulation, is stored, and finally used” (Lever-Duffy, McDonald, 2008). Unlike the behaviorist theory which focuses on external factors, the cognitivist perspective focuses on mental activity for storing information. Students attain long term memory of a skill by storing it first in their short term memory and then with more time to process the information it is stored in the long term memory. The short term memory can only process roughly seven pieces of information at a time. The cognitive theory recognizes sensory registers and stresses teaching to multiple senses such as visual and auditory to increase the likelihood of storing it to memory.

Cues, Questions, and Advance Organizers

“Cues, Questions, and Advance organizers focus on enhancing students’ ability to retrieve, use, and organize information” (Pitler, Hubbell, Kuhn & Malenoski, 2007). Cues and questions allows students to tap into their prior knowledge to make connections to new information. Since ideas are connected when stored to memory, it is important for students to connect new topics to pre-existing knowledge. This process of connecting new information to prior knowledge in order to construct their schemata is called metacognition (Robertson, Elliot, & Robinson, 2007). Cues should be direct and explicit. They should inform the students of the goals of the lesson. Questions should provide open ended responses that allows the reader to use critical thinking skills to develop a deeper understanding of the content. 

Advance organizers are tools that incorporate multiple senses to introduce, organize, present, and assess information. There are several forms of advance organizers that can be used in a myriad of ways. Robertson, Elliot, and Robinson (2007) described each type of organizer as the following:
Expository advance organizers include brochures, definitions, rubric, and programs. Narrative advance organizers are usually stories, articles, or artistic works. Graphic advance organizers are usually tables, charts, or artistic works. (p. 75)

In my classroom students are provided rubrics before an activity so that they are aware of the expectations and goals. I also use expository rubrics to introduce new science terms, present the focus questions, and review the scientific method before a science experiment. Narrative advance organizers allow students to use stories to make a personal connection to the new content. I often use picture books to introduce new math terms so that they can formulate a connection prior to applying the term to a math problem. Graphic advanced organizers can be used to assist students with organizing their thoughts before writing. Technology such as Webspiration allows students to organize their ideas on a web or outline. These organizers can also be used as an assessment piece. Webs, chart, or tables can be created with information eliminated. Students complete the missing information with the knowledge they learned from the lesson.

Summarizing and Note taking

Summarizing and note taking were strategies I initially researched in the book Classroom Instruction that Works by Marzano, Pickering, and Pollock. This book provided strategies for effective note taking such as creating a concept map to visualize ideas and connect relevant information. Students identify the key points of the topic and then attach relevant details. Another strategy that this book discussed was the combination technique which enforces multiple senses and processing the same information three different times. Students process information by writing notes as words, pictures, and summarizing the information. Because students are using dual nodes to record the information, they are more likely to store this information to memory. 

Summarizing is a tool that allows students to interpret information to determine its importance. Students should be able to eliminate information that is redundant or insignificant. If a list of items is present within the important information, it needs to be replaced with a term that describes the list. Finally a topic sentence should be found or created. There are many different frames that can be used to assist students in developing a summary. A narrative frame focuses on the key elements in a fictional text such as characters, setting, conflict, and resolution. A problem and solution frame is effective when discussing a social or economic problem in a social studies unit. The students need to identify the problem, possible solutions, and the solution that may have the greatest chance of success. This would also be a good frame to incorporate during an inquiry based science lesson where students develop a solution to a scientific inquiry. Each frame has a list of key questions that are relevant to the topic and helps the student determine the importance of information.

Virtual Field Trips

When students are able to attend a virtual field trip, they are storing information in their episodic memory. This memory remembers events that have occurred in the students’ lives. Virtual field trips can allow students to visualize information through photographs, interviews, and virtual worlds. There are also virtual field trips where students are able to communicate through teleconferencing equipment with a professional. My students have attended a virtual field trip at Plymouth Plantation. There were members of the Wampanoag tribe as well as actors portraying pilgrims. These individuals were interviewed to provide information about the past and the way that pilgrims and Wampanoag tribes lived. My students were engaged in the interview. When we added to our concept map after the field trip, students were able to remember ideas and connect the information to knowledge we had previously organized on our web.

After Thanksgiving my students will participate in a virtual field trip with the North Carolina History Museum. The museum is sending an assortment of artifacts for the students to observe throughout the field trip. My class will be videoconferencing with a member of the history museum as he guides them through the hands-on activity of analyzing artifacts using observation and graphic organizers. This will be a different type of field trip than the Plymouth trip, however it will be more personalized as the historian can answer direct questions and converse with my students.

Conclusion

Cognitivists say that in order for students to process ideas they need to form connections with previous knowledge which can be accomplished through cues, questions, and graphic organizers.  Since students only remember roughly seven pieces of information, it is important for them to determine what is important and essential to remember. Students can do this through graphic organizers, notetaking, and summarizing. Students can formulate new background knowledge through personal experiences using a virtual field trip. These trips allow students to learn using multiple senses such as visual, auditory, and tactile.

References

Laureate Education, Inc. (Producer). (2008). Program five: Cognitive learning theories. [DVD]. In Walden University: Bridging Learning Theory, Instruction, and Technology. Baltimore: Author.

Lever-Duffy, J., & McDonald, J. (2008). Theoretical foundations (Laureate Education, Inc., custom ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education, Inc. Retrieved October 30, 2010 from http://sylvan.live.ecollege.com/ec/courses/53036/CRS-CW-4603750/Ch1_Excerpt.pdf. 

Marzano, R.J., Pickering, D.J., & Pollock, J.E. (2001). Classroom instruction that works: Research-based strategies for increasing student achievement. Alexandria, VA: Association of Supervision and Curriculum Development

Pitler, H., Hubbell, E., Kuhn, M., & Malenoski, K. (2007). Using technology with classroom instruction that works. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

Behaviorism in the classroom

Reinforcing effort and homework and practice are two strategies that provide feedback for students with the intention of building on desired outcome. These strategies correlate to the behaviorist theory that “all behaviors are learned habits” (Standridge, 2002). If the desired outcomes are repeated, they will become habit and a new behavior will be instilled.

Reinforcing Effort

Reinforcing effort is described as “an instructional strategy that enhances students’ understanding of the relationship between effort and achievement by addressing their attitudes and beliefs about learning” (Pitler, Hubbell, Kuhn & Malenoski, 2007). This strategy relates to the behaviorist theory, because it is showing students the connection between effort and achievement in hopes of changing the students’ motivation level and work habits. The more effort a student provides, the more he or she will achieve. Once students form the habit of working at or above their potential, it will be embedded in their thinking. One strategy to reinforce effort is the use of rubrics and data. Students reflect on the amount of effort used to study and prepare for a test. After the test is graded, the results are added to the data. After continuing this strategy, patterns should start to form and students should realize that with effort comes greater achievement which would reinforce effort. 

Homework and Practice

Behaviorists believe that repetition of a skill or habit will embed it to memory. This thinking is what homework and practice reinforces. Marzano says “students need about 24 practice sessions with a skill in order to achieve 80 percent competency” (2001). Since homework and practice should be a continuation of the skills learned in class, this strategy reinforces these skills and allows for added repetition through practice. Websites such as Classroom.JC-Schools.net and http://www.webmath.com/k8drill.html provide repetition of skills in the form of drill and practice. The use of word processing applications such as word allows for instant feedback. Students are able to determine the level they are writing by using the Microsoft Word spelling and grammar tool. Students receive feedback to determine the grade level of writing he is she has produced. When students are told that they are writing at a level below their school year, students are intrinsically motivated to revise and edit their work. If a student needs to add more elaboration to their work in order to increase his or her grade level, this tool will continue reinforcing this skill until it becomes habit. 

Conclusion
Even though the behaviorist theory is often looked down upon in the education world, there are many beneficial strategies that stem from this theory. Students develop life long work ethics by understanding the relationship between effort and achievement. They will form a connection between hard work and success which can be applied to various aspects of their lives such as school and personal relationships. The implimentation of homework provides repetition of skills so that they can become embedded in the students memories. These are skills that students need to develop in order to apply to more challenging tasks in future grades. The behaviorist theory is prevelant in education whenever behaviors are learned and habits are formed.

References

Marzano, R.J., Pickering, D.J., & Pollock, J.e. (2001). Classroom instruction that works: Research-based strategies for increasing student achievement. Alexandria, VA” Association of Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Standridge, M. (2002). Behaviorism. In M. Orey (Ed.), Emerging Perspectives on Learning, Teaching, and Technology. Retrieved November 7, 2010, from http://projects.coe.uga.edu/epltt/index.php?title=Behaviorism